Approaching Chan
Part 2: The Two Streams of Chan Contemplative Practices
by Venerable Guo-Xing

When Chan Buddhist practices were first transmitted to China, they were the same as those practised in India. Over time, however, the contemplative practices (禪觀) of Chan in China diverged into two distinct streams: the Tiantai school’s Śamatha-vipaśyanā, a combination of Hinayana and Mahayana practices from India, and the Chan school’s current methods of Huatou (話頭) and Silent Illumination (默照) contemplation, which are derived from Mahayana Chan in India.

1. THE CHAN PRACTICES DEVELOPED IN THE TIANTAI SCHOOL

Tiantai is an indigenous Chinese school of Buddhism that takes the Lotus Sutra as the basis for its core teachings, with a dual-pronged emphasis on doctrine and practice. The development of the Tiantai school originated with the concept of ”One Mind (Engages), Three Discernments (Meditations)” (一心三觀) proposed by the school’s First Patriarch, Master Huiwen (c. mid-6th century). The Second Patriarch, Master Huisi (515–77), further developed the “samadhi of half walking and half sitting” practice and the “samadhi of neither walking nor sitting” practice, as a way of applying the “One Mind, Three Discernments” in daily life. This represented a significant breakthrough in Chinese Chan thought and was the forerunner of the later Chan school, which emphasises that “the Way is in daily life.”

The Third Patriarch, Master Zhiyi (538–97), combined two contemplative practices from India and two from Master Huisi into four kinds of practice* in the treatise Mahā–śamatha-vipaśyanā (摩訶止觀). Master Zhiyi also inherited Master Huisi’s three types of Śamatha-vipaśyanā and made them a complete system of practice. The three types of Śamatha-vipaśyanā are:

1. Gradual Advancement Śamatha-vipaśyanā. While in his 30s, Master Zhiyi analyzed and compared in great detail all the gradual contemplation practices from India and wrote the well-known book, The Sequential Practices of Dhyāna Pāramitā (釋禪波羅蜜次第法門).

2. Indeterminate Śamatha-vipaśyanā. During middle age, Master Zhiyi wrote The Six Excellent Approaches for Practising Meditation (六妙門) and the Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā (小止觀) to help practitioners of various levels of ability practice Śamatha-vipaśyanā. These include guidelines for settling the body and mind before practising the methods, methods for concentrating the mind, and how to practice in daily life while standing, sitting, working, or resting.

3. Perfect and Sudden Śamatha-vipaśyanā. When he reached old age, Master Zhiyi started to use the Śamatha-vipaśyanā system to summarise all the Buddhadharma. He completed a very detailed and systematic book titled Mahā-śamatha-vipaśyanā (摩訶止觀).

The late Chan Master Sheng Yen (1930–2009) was not a Tiantai expert, yet both his master’s and his doctoral theses focused on the Tiantai school. He frequently used Tiantai teachings to help newcomers begin with the gradual methods of contemplation to establish a foundation for practising the sudden methods. He would always remind practitioners that the purpose of practice is the practice itself and that the practice has two aspects: to clarify the concepts and to be actualised in daily life.

In short, after practitioners had built a practical foundation for meditating and focusing their minds, Master Sheng Yen would introduce direct contemplation and contemplation of the Middle Way (seeing emptiness), or the practice of the sudden methods, such as Huatou and Silent Illumination.

2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHAN PRACTICES

The Chan school emerged 100–200 years later than the Tiantai school. Since Bodhidharma, the First Patriarch of the Chan school, came to China, the school has adapted to accommodate changing times and regional differences, and its style and content have gone through a number of major evolutions. According to the research of modern scholars, at least three major transformations have taken place.

The first period: from Bodhidharma’s arrival in China to the passing of the Sixth Patriarch Huineng (~190 years).

Bodhidharma introduced his treatise Two Entrances and Four Practices (二入四行) to China. “The Entrance of Principle” teaches the practitioner to meditate without having any thoughts in the mind. “The Entrance to Practice” introduces four methods to be practised in daily life — the Practice of Repaying Grievances, the Practice of Being in Accordance with Conditions, the Practice of Not Seeking, and the Practice of Abiding in the Dharma.

The Chan lineage was eventually transmitted to Master Huineng (638–713), whose teachings and practices are detailed in The Sixth Patriarch Platform Sutra. For example: “Do not think of good or evil. At this precise moment, where is your original face?” On another occasion, Master Huineng explained: “The Dharma method that I teach takes concentration and wisdom as its foundation. Yet everyone here should not be confused and think that samadhi (concentration) and wisdom are different . . . in actuality, when wisdom manifests, concentration is within wisdom; when concentration is attained, wisdom is within concentration.”

The essence of the Sixth Patriarch’s teachings, which is also the essence of the Sixth Patriarch Platform Sutra, are the concepts of “no thought,” “non-abiding,” and “no form.” These teachings are similar to the frequent instructions Master Sheng Yen would give when leading Chan practice to help practitioners to let go of attachment.

The second period: the 250 years after the Sixth Patriarch Huineng.

From the passing of Master Huineng to the end of the Five Dynasties (713–959), some 250 years, the Chan school produced many great masters. Over time, the many disciples in the Sixth Patriarch’s lineage developed five distinct schools of Chan, each with its own style and character: Weishan Lingyou and Yangshan Huiji founded the Weiyang School, Huangpo Xiyun and Linji Yixuan founded the Linji School, Yunmen Wenyan founded the Yunmen School, Dongshan Liangjie and Caoshan Benji founded the Caodong School, and Fayan Wenyi founded the Fayan School. Of the five, Linji and Caodong are the only schools that have survived to the present day.

The third period: the beginning of the Song dynasty to the Ming and Qing dynasties (~1,000 years)

Chan Buddhism had already matured by the end of the Tang dynasty (618–907). Chan Master Yongming Yanshou (904–975) and other eminent teachers further advocated and integrated various practices, such as upholding mantras, reciting the Buddha’s name/being mindful of the Buddha, prostrating to the Buddha, repenting of past karma, circumambulating, and chanting sutras. Consequently, the prevailing understanding from this period until the present day has been that the practices of Chan and Pure Land Buddhism are complementary and that their esoteric and esoteric teachings come from the same source.

Master Sheng Yen was born during a time of war and political upheaval. Although he became a monk at a young age, he was unable to find a good teacher under whom to study Chan. The monastery in which he resided also lacked a complete system of education. He later enlisted in the army and migrated to Taiwan, where he once again became a monastic, practising in solitude for six years. Enduring great hardships, he attained a doctorate while in Japan and taught Buddhism in the United States. During this period, he had no monastery to call home, however, despite such difficulties, Master Sheng Yen later observed that his days wandering homeless in the streets were the most burden-free times of his life. It was while living in this unstable and turbulent environment that he received the Dharma lineages of the Linji and Caodong schools.

In describing his own spiritual practice, Master Sheng Yen said: “I had many illnesses throughout my life and the obstructions from my karmic actions were great. Yet, I came upon my initial realisation in my Chan practice during a period when my work in the army was especially demanding. . . . At that time, my body was constantly ill and my work was very difficult, however, I still set aside time every day to read the sutras, make prostrations to the Buddhas, and sit in meditation. I devoted myself fully to my practice without giving up. . . . My religious experiences did not result only from being in a solitary retreat in the mountains, and my foundation in studying Buddhism was not only established in my studies abroad in Tokyo — this is why I often say these two sentences: ‘The busiest people have the most time. The most hardworking people have the best health.’”

Chan, then, is certainly not limited to simply meditating. Rather, Chan is seizing every moment and working hard at all times. This is Master Sheng Yen’s approach to, and vision of, Chan practice.

Energy is our most precious resource, for it is the means by which we transform our creative potential into meaningful action.

— Tarthang Tulku Rinpoche

做父母的要以五事来对待儿女
广化老和尚

人人都会生儿女,但不见得人人都知道教儿女;生儿女易,教儿女难,天下大乱及地狱充塞的因素虽多,儿童时代未受家教的因素当居大半。光会生儿女,不会教儿女的人,实在惭愧为人父母,对不起祖先,亦对不起国家。

“养不教,父之过” 这话一点不错。俗谚道:‘养子不教如养驴,养女不教如养猪。’养了儿女不管教,长大了为害社会人群,这岂不是父之过吗?古时候,有一个杀人放火无恶不作的罪犯,判处斩首示众。他要求在临刑之前,吮一吮母亲的乳头,母亲答允了,将乳头送到他嘴里,他狠命一咬将乳头咬掉了——他恨煞母亲没有管教他,小时撒赖放任他,少年时做太保袒护他,以致长大之后,无恶不作,落得今朝斩首示众,悔已迟了。这故事值得那些袒护儿女打老师的父母们,作面镜子。

如上所述,养子不教确有罪过,可是教之不以义方,亦是有罪过的。例如看见儿女以财物施贫济急,便不高兴;看见儿女取非份之财回家,却生欢喜,这等于教儿女悭吝贪财。此人儿女长大之后,不做贪官亦是小偷,做父母的怎么辞其咎?爰节录古今圣贤之“教子义方”数则,以供为人父母者作参考。

佛说《善生经》云:‘做父母的要以五事对待儿女:第一、禁止儿女造一切恶,并且指导他们行一切善。第二、教导儿女知书识礼,及授予谋生技能。第三、对儿女要尽力爱护与照料。第四、指导儿女的婚姻大事。第五、随时供给儿女的生活费用和学费。’此说最完善扼要。

现代高僧印光大师说:‘凡属子女,必须从幼教以孝弟忠信,勤俭温恭,至其长大入学读书,方有受益之基。倘自幼任性惯了,且无论无天资无善教,即有天资有善教,亦只成得个文字工人,儒门败类而已。世有才高北斗,学富五车,而其所作所为,皆仗此聪明,以毒害生灵,毁灭道义者,其原皆由初无家教以为之肇也……凡子女力能为者,必须令其常做以习勤;凡饮食衣服,勿令华美;但凡抛弃五谷及损坏什物,无论物之贵贱轻重,必须告其来处不易,及折福损寿等义。’此说最具体易行。

天下父母心,都疼爱儿女的,都希望儿女将来有光明锦绣的前程。可是光明前程,不可幸致,欲想儿女前程光明,就必须教之以义方。前面所举的三个例子,按照佛说的义方教子,则子可望成佛;按照圣贤的义方教子,则子可望成圣贤,端在各人善为选择。

One should not kill a living being, nor cause it to be killed, nor should one incite another to kill. Do not injure any being, either strong or weak, in the world.

— The Buddha

Approaching Chan, Part 1
by Venerable Guo-Xing

“A defining feature of Chinese Buddhism is the integration of the fundamental Buddhist principles found in India with Chinese Confucian ethics and the Daoist’s pursuit of naturalness and spontaneity. In this process of amalgamation, earlier precepts were re-calibrated to become “Rules of Purity,” tailored to the ethical traditions of the Chinese people, while Indian contemplative practices were replaced by an emphasis on rediscovering one’s inner wisdom, to attract those drawn to the Daoist pursuit of naturalness and spontaneity. As a result, Chinese Buddhism has remained free from the confinement of formal precepts and avoided the pitfalls of romanticised, laissez-faire approaches to Buddhism. While being free from the burden of tradition and leading a lifestyle that is spontaneous and at ease, Chan practitioners nevertheless emphasise and exercise vigour and pure conduct in their daily practice, which is precisely the original intent of Shakyamuni Buddha’s teachings.”

After Buddhism was brought to China from India, the initial focus on sutra translation gradually evolved into the eight Chinese schools of Mahayana Buddhism: the Three Treatise (Sanlun), Pure Land, Tian Tai, Consciousness-Only (also known as Yogachara), Huayan, Vinaya, Chan, and the Tantric schools. The late Chan Master Sheng Yen (1930–2009) compared the approaches of the eight schools to modern fields of study, stating: “The approach of the Consciousness-Only school resembles that of science, and the Three Treatise school is akin to philosophy. The approaches of the Huayan and Tian Tai schools parallel literature. The mantra school (Shingon shū) and Pure Land can be considered forms of aesthetics. Meanwhile, Chan embodies the core teachings of Buddhadharma. Master Taixu [1890–1947] also said, ‘The crux of Chinese Buddhism is Chan,’ where the teaching of any of the other schools can be reduced to the spirit of Chan. As for the disciplines (Vinaya) school, it is the foundation of Buddhism.”

Recognising precepts as the foundation of Buddhist practice, the implementation of Chan in daily life adheres to the spirit of the Buddhist precepts, while also taking into consideration contemporary laws and ethical standards. In Master Sheng Yen’s view, “The precepts are guidelines for Chan practitioners to lead an ethical life, which can be distilled to the following: One should do whatever is needed, refrain from doing what is not needed, and never commit what is prohibited.” (Master Sheng Yen 1999, 288) Chan Master Baizhang Huaihai (720–814), the fourth-generation heir of the Sixth Patriarch Huineng (638–713), established “The Rules of Purity for Monasteries,” which were drawn up in a way that did not confine them with the specificity of the precepts observed in Theravada Buddhism and some Mahayana schools, while still adhering to their overarching principles. Furthermore, the customs of Chinese society and the characteristics of the broader temporal and geographic contexts were considered in creating these guidelines for Chan’s monastic life. “The objective of setting up such guidelines is for Chan practitioners to live in a way that is content, free of desires, and to encourage the practitioners to follow dhūta [Sanskrit; work intended for spiritual progress] practices and the practices of humbleness and repentance. Consequently, the attitude derived from living this way will be settled and stable, harmonious and engaged. This is also the reason why the Chan monastic lifestyle remains to this day simple, neat and organised, grounded and tranquil.”

Generally speaking, all Buddhist practices are based on precepts, meditative concentration, and wisdom. By observing the Five Precepts*, a Chan practitioner can better achieve concentration and uncover the true wisdom that lies within everyone. Observing the precepts can prevent the conditions for vexation from arising while practising meditative concentration helps to subdue the impact of vexation, yet only the cultivation of wisdom can remove vexation.

This is why Chan emphasises the cultivation of wisdom through practice in everyday life; daily life is Chan. The Sixth Patriarch Huineng said, “Walking, standing, sitting, and laying down — in one pure direct mind, and the unmoved practice ground (direct mind) is the real Pure Land.” His disciple, Master Yongjia (665–713) likewise said, “Walking is Chan. Sitting is Chan. In speech, silence, movement, stillness — the essence of mind is always at ease and tranquil.” This is the reason why many Chan masters attained enlightenment while performing daily chores. One famous example is Master Baizhang’s disciple, Xiangyan Zhixian (812–898), who was an expert in sutras and shastras, but could not attain enlightenment. He decided to leave his monastery to tend the fields daily and investigate hua tou, a form of meditation common to Chan. One day, as he was working in the field, Xiangyan picked up and tossed aside a piece of broken brick, which hit a bamboo stalk with a sharp “crack!” The very instant that he heard the sound, Xiangyen attained enlightenment. This story exemplifies a typical way Chan was practised after the time of the Sixth Patriarch Huineng, when Chan teaching in China had fully evolved into a kind of direct, “sudden” method.

However, this direct method of practice can sometimes be overly abstract and difficult to grasp for beginners, therefore traditional Chan training nowadays begins with sitting meditation (Skt. samadhi). The cultivation of samadhi is taught through sitting in the correct posture and using methods to regulate the body, the breath, and the mind, to enable practitioners to begin to settle and stabilise their minds. Only then can they begin working on uncovering wisdom. In other words, by first following a concrete and clear methodology, new practitioners are able to gather and unify their scattered minds. Then they can begin to uncover their intrinsic wisdom, which is the attainment of so-called “enlightenment” or “seeing one’s true nature.”

This mode of Chan practice is suitable for the majority of people. Historically, in the beginning, stages of Chan instruction in China, this kind of gradual and sequential method has been frequently adopted. Upholding the precepts leads to the development of samadhi, which itself leads to the uncovering of wisdom. Tiantai Master Zhiyi’s (538–97) book, Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā (小止観) mentions that Chan practitioners must first complete the 25 prerequisite practices before they can really begin the practice of śamatha-vipaśyanā.

At Dharma Drum Mountain, Master Sheng Yen developed a set of standard guidelines and classes to help beginners learn basic meditation, starting from adopting the correct sitting posture, which is then combined with Eight-form Moving Meditation, relaxation exercises, and standing and sitting yoga, to help practitioners regulate their bodies and breathing. Counting breaths, slow walking meditation, and fast walking meditation are taught in conjunction to further help practitioners regulate and focus their minds before more advanced methods are presented.

The true bodhisattva spirit grows out of this personal sense of freedom. You discover that you don’t feel so needy anymore. You don’t crave another refuelling – with shamatha or with other people’s love and attention – because you know within yourself how to be free, how to be confident. With this sense of security and freedom, you begin to direct your attention to the needs of others. The compassion expands.

— Tsoknyi Rinpoche

远离迷信的障碍(二)
白云老禅师

十一、世界–或者称为世间,分有情与器世界二种,所谓有情者指众生之身而言,基于业因所感而得的正果叫做正报。所谓器者即衣食家宅用物及山河大地等之总称,基于有情所依之果报叫做依报。世界的计量,系以一千世界为一小千世界,一千小千世界为一中千世界;集一千中千世界为一大千世界;统称为三千大千世界,每一大千世界约数为十万万个世界,是为佛所有的化境;广集无量之大千世界,合而为十方微尘世界,我们现居的世界(一银河系)叫做娑婆世界,娑婆之义是「能忍」,也就是说我们这个世界,是一个能忍受众苦煎逼的世界!

十二、劫–成、住、坏、空是世界循环的现象,此现象称之为劫,梵语为劫波,译义有「时分、大时、长时」的各种说法;每一大劫分为「成住坏空」四个中劫,每一中劫分为二十小劫(一小劫约一千六百万年)。四中劫的现象的区分是:成劫为世界成立之时。住劫为世界成立以后,一切有情众生安住之时。坏劫为世界破坏之时。空劫为世界灭尽,空无所有之时。

十三、三界–分欲界、色界、无色界;欲界是淫食二欲的有情众生所居住,上自六欲天,中自四大部洲,下至无间地狱。色界是已离淫食二欲的有情众生所居住,其形色殊胜,依禅定深浅而别,称之为四禅天,或者叫四静虑天。无色界是无形色的有情众生所居住,包括有四无色天,或者叫四空处;三界又名三有,依因果不亡,生死相续的意义而定名。

十四、九地–三界复分九地(九有),一是五趣杂居地,即欲界,自天人以及畜生饿鬼地狱,合为一地。二是离生喜乐地,即色界初禅,已离欲界之苦而生喜乐。三是定生喜乐地,即色界二禅,已无寻伺,从定而生喜乐。四是离喜妙乐地,即色界三禅,离喜贪,心悦安静,有胜妙之乐。五是舍念清净地,即色界四禅,离喜乐,清净平等,住于舍受正念。六是空无边处地,即无色界第一天,厌色而住于空无边处定之有情所居地。七是识无边处地,即无色界第二天,住于识无边处定之有情所居地。八是无所有处地,即无色界第三天,住于无所有处定之有情所居地。九是非想非非想处地,即无色界第四天,住于非想非非想处定之有情所居地。

十五、五趣与六道–所谓五趣,即天、人、鬼、畜生、地狱,又名五道;加阿修罗共为六趣,又名六道。所谓阿修罗,似天非天,有天修罗与鬼修罗之分,可归纳于他趣,所以小乘经典多说五趣;趣的意思是未出三界之众生,因感果而趣向者,道的意思是展转相通于轮回生死中。

十六、本惑–亦名根本烦恼,计分贪、瞋、痴、慢、疑、我见等六类;我见又分身见、边见、邪见、见取见、戒禁取见五种,合称十惑,又名十随眠。根本烦恼中的贪、瞋、痴、慢、疑五者其性迟钝难启,又名五钝使;我见中的身见、边见、邪见、见取见、戒禁取见五者锐利易止,又名五利使。所谓使者,为仿徨迷惘中之众生为其役使。此钝与利又有「事迷理迷」的差异;所谓事迷即是昧于正理而生起烦恼。而二者的发生,则不离于「见与思」二者所迷惑;同样,欲遏止此一现象,仍不离于「见与思」二者的觉醒。

十七、随惑–随于根本烦恼所生起之枝末烦恼,约计有十九种之多,如放逸、懈怠、不信、昏沉、掉举、无惭、无愧、忿、覆、悭、嫉、恼、害、恨、谄、诳、憍、睡眠、恶作等。随惑于三界之分配,以谄诳局于欲界及色界之初禅。以放逸、懈怠、不信、昏沉、掉举贯通三界;其他为不善性,属于欲界。所以,欲界拥有十九烦恼之全部,而色界仅具八种、无色界六种。

十八、圣谛–俱舍宗认为善恶是其业因,烦恼是其业缘,而引起五蕴的汇合,发生心身世界,承受生死轮回诸苦;唯有修行「戒定慧」三无漏学,才能灭除惑业而得解脱,证得般涅槃。所以,五蕴汇合而成「集谛」,心身世界是为「苦谛」,三学之道是为「道谛」,证般涅槃是为「灭谛」;所谓谛者即是真理,道出世间的苦果来自五蕴的汇合,唯有修学无漏三学,才能证得般涅槃的究竟解脱。

十九、十二因缘–惑业引发生死,计有十二因缘,又名十二支;是无名、行、识、名色、六入、触、受、爱、取、有、生、老死。所谓因缘即十二者的关系;首为无明缘行,缘于宿世之惑,由于行是造作,因惑而起造作诸业,是为无明缘行。次为行缘识,缘于业力生起托胎之识。三为识缘名色,缘于托胎以后而具心身;所谓名色是指名为受、想、行、识四蕴,色为色蕴;名色是指六根未具以前的心身形态。四为名色缘六入,缘于名色的成就,渐渐具足六根(眼、耳、鼻、舌、身、意六者又叫六入)。五为六入缘触,缘于出离母胎,六根感触尘之六境(色、声、香、味、触、法六者为六尘)。六为触缘受,缘于感触尘境而领受苦乐。七为受缘爱,缘于苦乐而生爱欲。八为爱缘取,缘于爱欲而起执着贪求。九为取缘有,缘于求取而种来世之因。十为有缘生,缘于既种来世之因,遂成转生之果。十一为生缘老死,缘于生必变坏而成老死。依三生四谛之分:无明与行,是前世造作之因,属于集谛。识、名色、六入、触、受五支,是现世所受之果,属苦谛。爱、取、有三支,是现世所造之因,属集谛、生与老死,是来世当受之果,属于苦谛。

二十、涅槃–汉译意义甚广,计有寂灭、解脱、无为、灭度等;凡能灭除烦恼、出离生死、去系缚、得寂静,皆可谓之解脱。涅槃有两种,一是有余涅槃,为烦恼已灭尽,生命尚存在,身心依然作用。二是无余涅槃,为烦恼永远断尽,生命也结束,身心不再作用,无有余依者。

二十一、漏法—-分有漏与无漏二种,所谓有漏即是有住,有流,有泄等;由于烦恼能使众生流转生死,常住三界,像器物漏泄一般。所谓无漏即是道谛以外的有为法(为有漏),也就是色法,心法,心所法,不相应行法等有漏之法,余下的择灭,非择灭,虚空等三无为法(为无漏),皆属无漏法。

二十二、三乘–声闻、缘觉,菩萨是为三乘,各乘修证有别;声闻乘观四谛,修行三世,可证阿罗汉,最慢经六十劫(生死);以阶位分七方便(三贤四善根)和四果(预流、一来、不还、阿罗汉)。缘觉乘观十二因缘。修行四世,可证辟支佛,最慢经百劫;以阶位分一向一果。菩萨乘修六度,经三大阿僧祇劫,复于百劫中修植三十二相,八十随形好,最后身中断结「见思」二惑,而入于佛果。

第二节 成实学派

一、缘起–成实论是本宗的依典,佛灭度后大约九百年,小乘佛子萨婆多部俱摩罗陀尊者,有高弟狮子铠(诃梨跋摩)取小乘各部的精义而着编为「成实论」,标明我法二空的道理;所以叫做成实,是释迦如来所说的三藏十二部实义之所在,本论是姚秦鸠摩罗什大师译出,共十六卷二百二品,在南北朝广弘此论,盛行华夏,遂成此宗。

二、观辨–立二观以明二空,一为空观,喻瓶中无水是空,五蕴中无有人我,不见假名众生。二为无我观,喻瓶体无实是空,五蕴诸法俱是假名,实无有体,不见有法,前者又名「人空」,后者又名「法空」。

三、三心–假名、法、空三者以不同的因缘观照,而分别成就功德。一为假名心,由是人我的假名而生执着,以为实有;如以因缘智灭除,即得人空观。二为法心,由是五蕴的生起诸法,执有实体之心,如以空智灭除,即得法空观。三为空心,由是观照人法俱空,生起空有之心,如灭断此空的执着,即得我法皆空;到最后「空」亦不可得,是为功德圆成。

四、第一义–器世界说有我,其实因缘和合而生;经云:「五蕴和合,假名为我,而非实有。」佛说诸行如幻如化,故云第一义空;第一义的谛理,是五蕴之色空无所有,乃至识空无所有,是故若人观色、受、想、行、识诸法皆空,是人见第一义空。因世俗随顺,故言有我有法,其实五蕴和合,假名为人,因缘所成,故说有法;而此假有,缘散则灭,是以第一义,说因缘和合,缘聚缘散,诸法皆空。

五、二障–成就佛位,须断二障,二障即烦恼,所知二障;见思二惑,合成烦恼,以执实我之见,扰乱身心,生诸烦恼,能障涅槃道果,是为烦恼障。二为所知障(智障),以执实法之见,盖覆所知之境无有颠倒,能障菩提道果。

六、八十四法–计有色法十四:即五根,五尘,四大。心法五十:即心王一,心所法四十九,同俱舍之四十六心所,加欣、厌、睡眠。非色非心法十七:同俱舍之十四不相应行,合命根与同分为一,复加老死,凡夫之无作(无表色)。无为法三,与俱舍宗同,合共八十四法。

七、二十七位–基于修因证果,故立二十七位,或为二十七贤圣。兹分列于后:

有学者:

预流向:随信行──闻思位。随法行-四善根位。无相行∣见道。
预流果
一来向
一来果
不还向
不还果:中般、生般、有行般、无行般、乐慧、乐定、转世、现般、信解、见得、身证。

阿罗汉向:

无学者

阿罗汉果:退法相、守护相、死相、住相、可进相、不坏相、慧解脱、俱解脱、不退相。

第三节 律学派

一、缘起:本宗系以律藏为依归,故立名为律宗。佛陀住世之时,因事制戒,随缘散说。佛陀入灭后,优婆离尊者结集,升座诵出,经八十次,是为八十诵,集成律藏。后来由于小乘分部,律亦渐次分部,计有二部,五部与二十部之分;所谓二部者,即上座与大众。五部者即萨婆多(十诵律)昙无德(四分律)大众(僧祇律)弥沙塞(五分律)迦叶遗(解脱律),在我国所译者仅前四部,而迦叶遗部仅传戒本,未广传律法。于唐代之智首律师曾着五部区分钞,后为其弟子道宣律师,以四分律最适于我土,故于四分律而明戒体立行相;除此之外,另有相部之法砺,东塔之怀素,与道宣鼎足对峙,合称四分律之三大宗匠;惟道宣所传,盛行于后世,盖以能融和大小三乘,行解相应的原故。

二、止作二持:明理戒法,不离修持,本宗本止作二法而行「善恶」之修持,一者止恶,一者修善,故止作二持所摄,具足一切戒法;以四分律之前半,系僧尼二部戒法,僧部二百五十戒,尼部三百四十一戒,加「七灭诤」合而为三百四十八戒;再加式叉摩那一百五十二戒,总成五百戒法。次为律中之后半二十犍度,所谓犍度者可译为部份,或为品,为聚;计有受戒、说戒、安居、自恣、皮革、衣、药、迦絺那衣、拘口弥、瞻波、呵责、人、覆、遮、破僧、灭诤、比丘尼(特殊之法)、法、房舍、杂等二十法。前二部是为止持具足之戒法,二十部是为作持诸法;但四分律的精神所在,是止中有作,作中有止,互相通用,不可偏废;是以止作二持,有总有别,总则一切诸善不离止作二持,别则单就戒律而明修持。

三、具足戒:戒量有三重,以戒言广至无量,僧则尚有三千威仪,六万细行,略言之则二百五十戒法,内分四波罗夷、十三僧残、二不定、三十舍堕、九十波逸提、四提舍尼、百众学、七灭诤。而尼戒广同无量,具八万威仪、十二万细行、略言之则三百四十八戒,内分八波罗夷、十七僧残、三十舍堕、一百七十八波逸提,八提舍尼、百众学、七灭诤。基于僧尼戒法之具足,其量犹若虚空,境遍法界,故立其数,约境明相,而别解脱之法;其余五戒、八戒、十戒、诸法等,无不从具足戒中出,择其切要者,以应受持者之机,使其渐次入于具足戒法。

四、四科:戒分四科,是明戒律之精神所在,如戒律中的不杀、不盗等是为戒法;次是戒体,为受戒者心目中所取得「防非止恶」的功能,三是戒行,为随顺戒体,现于身口意如法动作。四是戒相、为足以典范予持戒者之相也!资持记说:圣人制教名法,纳法成业名体,依体起护名行,为行有仪名相。

五、化制二教:本宗判一代圣教为化教与制教二者,如经论二藏,泛说因果之理以化道俗是为化教;戒律一藏,说出家之戒法,独制内众是为制教;因经论中所诠乃定慧法门,以教化众生。律藏所诠乃戒学法门,以制止弟子之过犯;三者又名三学,以戒为首,戒行清净,定慧自立,是以持戒制止邪恶,定慧伏断烦恼。

六、三学行相:本宗主大乘圆教三学,谓戒法即三聚净戒,戒体以藏识种子为体,戒行即定慧妙行;其戒相以止观并运,止乃禅定之相,观为智慧之用,故说戒即是定慧,无一法而非定慧;定慧即是戒,无一法而非戒,如是谓之圆融三学之行相也!

七、戒别:五戒为在家善信男女所持,八戒(八关斋戒)为在家众受出家戒一日夜,以种出世之正因。十戒为沙弥、沙弥尼所持。六法为式叉摩那所持。二百五十戒为比丘所持。三百四十八戒为比丘尼所持。由此可知,戒分四位,有五戒、八戒、十戒、具足戒,如加上六法,则计有五类。以持戒对象分:有比丘、比丘尼、式叉摩那、沙弥、沙弥尼出家五众,而在家复有优婆塞、优婆夷等,合而为佛子七众。

八、三聚净戒:一为摄律仪戒,受持一切戒律,可使一切诸恶悉皆断除。二为摄善法戒,是修行一切诸善法。三为摄众生戒(饶益有情戒)为一切众生遍施利益。此三聚融通互摄,例如不杀生一戒即具三聚。因不伤害生命、是为摄律仪,从而善心增长,是为摄善法;由于不伤害之慈悲心而饶益众生,是为摄众生;所以任持一戒即具三聚,又摄律仪戒复分三种:计别解脱、定共、道共三者。别解脱戒如五戒、八戒、十戒、具足戒等可由作法而得,分别防护三业之非而各别解脱者。定共戒乃入诸禅定,自得无作,与定共生故。道共戒乃得无漏道,自离三业之造作,与道共生故。

第四节 法相学派

一、缘起–本宗以分别诸法性相为旨趣,而明了「万法唯识」,故又名唯识宗;最初起源于弥勒菩萨应无著菩萨之请,宣说瑜伽师地论,后来无著菩萨造显扬圣教论,摄大乘论,阿毗达磨集论;随后乃弟世亲菩萨造二十唯识论等。最早本宗在印度叫做瑜伽宗,迨至我唐代有玄奘法师游印度,于戒贤论师处学瑜伽,后归长安传其高弟窥基大师,基师着成唯识论述记及枢要等,广弘法相义谛,由是兴盛一时。

二、经典–六经十一论是本宗的依典,所谓六经,即是华严经,解深密经,如来出现功德庄严经,阿毗达磨经,楞伽经、密严经。所谓十一论,即是瑜伽师地论,显扬圣教论,大乘庄严论,集量论,摄论,十地经论,分别瑜伽论,观所缘缘论,二十唯识论,辨中边论,集论。

三、百法–立五位之法而成百法,即心法八(识)心所有法五十一(遍行五、别境五、善十一、烦恼六、随烦恼二十、不定四。)色法十一、不相应行法二十四、无为法六。所谓心法即一切诸法无质碍而有缘虑之用,为缘起诸法的根本。所谓心所法即随附于心法而起者,是心法所有之法。所谓色法即有物质之形者以物质为因而生。所谓不相应行法即不附随于心法者。所谓无为法即常住而不自因缘生者,是以本宗谓心外无法,以色法乃心中所现之假法,故心法为首;这与俱舍宗的「心外实有色法」及「心心所法依托色法而起」是不相同的,因为心王八法中除俱舍所标的「六根识」以外,尚有第七末那识,和第八阿赖耶识。次为心所法;心所法复分为六,一者遍行心所,二者别境心所,三者善心所,四者烦恼心所,五者随烦恼心所,六者不定心所。关于色法十一是与俱舍宗相同,惟有无表色为「法处所摄色」乃十二处标明法趣所摄色,是指意根对境而言。次为不相应行法计二十四,前十四法同于俱舍,仅俱舍的「非得」是为「异生性」和「生住异灭」乃「生老住无常」之别;除此,尚有流转,定异、相应、势速、次第、时、方、数、和合性、不和合性等。次为无为法六:计有虚空、择灭、非择灭、不动、想受灭、真如无为等。

四、种子–说明第八识所藏的生果功能,其中分为二类,一为本有种子,是第八识中无始以来本性具有能生蕴处界的功能差别,或称为本性住种。二为新熏种子,是第七识于世世现行所熏习而成的种子,尽数落于八藏识中,能增长将来生果功能,故又称为习所成种;二者同生现行,具不混淆,如新熏遇缘即从新熏生,如本有遇缘即从本有生。

五、种相缘生–第八识中所藏诸种子于遇缘显现时,是为种子所生现行;能生为种子所生前七识的现行,故能生的种子是因,所生的现行为果;此前七识的现行又能熏习第八识而成为种子。叫做现行熏,合而有能生的种子,所生的现行,和所熏的种子三法展转,互为因果。

六、心所四分–一为相分,相即相状,指所缘而说,乃人的心识缘境不时所现的影像。二为见分,见是见照,指能缘而说,心性明了,自能照见前境。三为自证分,证是证知,能证知见分,是其他三分之体,所以又称为自体分。四为证自证分,即能证自证分;譬如见月,月为心所显现之相分,能见为见分,能自感见月为自证分,能证知自感见月为证自证分。

七、所缘境–境分三种,一性境,是为体性,由实种而生,有实体实用,能缘之心,得境之自相。二独影境,是为无所托之本质,乃能缘之心,独自变化的影相。三带质境,是为有所托之本质,但能缘之心不能得其自相;此三种所缘之境,皆为心识之相分,而心所四分,皆为心识之作用,所以本宗主心外无法,万法唯识,既无实法,亦无实我。

八、我法二执–有俱生和分别二种,所谓俱生者,无始以来,基于六识与七识虚妄熏习内因之力,恒与身俱,不待邪教和邪分别而自然生起。所谓分别者非与身俱,须待邪教和邪分别然后生起。其次是俱生我执与俱生法执,一种是由第七识缘第八识执为实我或实法,且常相续;一种是由第六识缘五蕴之相执为实我,或者是缘蕴处界之相执为实法,但常间断。至于分别我执与分别法执,惟第六识具有;所云分别我执,缘邪教所说蕴相或我相而分别计度,执为实我。所云分别法执,缘邪教所说蕴处界相或自性等分别计度,执为实法。

九、三性三无性–为明了真妄之义,而立三性:一者遍计所执性,二者依他起性,三者圆成实性;兹详述于后:

遍计所执–遍计者周遍计度的意思,是指众生妄情上所现的实我实法之相而言;凡色法诸法从因缘生,而迷情妄执,以为有实我实法,如夜入空屋,妄执有鬼;基于妄见生有,实无体相,像空中花,是相无性。

依他起–他即是指因缘,一切有为法,皆由因缘和合而起;如棉是因,人织为缘,而后有布,或以布为因,人缝为缘,而后有衣,皆依他而起。依他起法,从众缘和合而生,不是自然生起,所以说生无性。

圆成实–由我空与法空所显现的圆满成就诸法实性,此是指真如而言,因真如是唯识之实性;如布的实性是棉,衣的实性是布,是说圆成实性。基于圆成实性必须证得我、法二空后才能显现,超情离相,由于远离以前的遍计所执我与法性的原故,所以说胜义无性。

十、三量–心所缘境,有现量、比量,非量三种差别,所以说名三量;其内容分别条述于后:

现量–现即是现显,直觉显现的缘境,能逼附境的自体,分明了别,而不迷乱。
比量–比即是比类,不能直觉显现的缘境,比类量度而正了知,如见影知物,见烟知火。
非量–为缘境现前,不能正知,虚妄分别;也就是说似现非现,似比非比,凡对现量与比量谬误之量度皆是。

以上三量,以八识分别,前五识及第八识惟现现量,第六识遍通三量,第七识在有漏位中,惟现非量。

十一、善恶无记–无记的意思是非善非恶,计分有覆和无覆二种无记;有覆者;其性染污而非善恶。无覆者:其性非染污,亦非善恶。覆有覆障,以染法能障圣道;又有覆蔽,以染法能蔽心使不净;以八识分;前八识通于善恶无记,第七识为有覆无记,第八识为无覆无记。

十二、五重唯识–五种唯识是为观法,自粗至细,共有五重,分述于后:

遣虚存实识–虚者即遍计所执之实我实法,情有理无,惟是虚妄,无有体用。存即存留。实者指依他起性与圆成实性而言,二者有实体用;故虚者当遣,实者当存,此观分别:遣为空观,以破有执,存为有观,以遣空执,是故,空有相对,为第一唯识观法。

舍滥留纯识–依他起性的诸识中有境有心,境为相分,心为见分、自证分、证自证分;相分为所缘,后三为能缘,惟恐互相混滥,故舍相分的内境,但观能缘所属的后三分,于是心境相对,是为第二重唯识观。

摄末归本识–见相二分,俱依自证分而起,因自证分是为体,故为本,见相为用、故为末;摄用归体,即是摄末归本,而观唯识,体用相对,是为第三重唯识观。

隐劣显胜识–前第三重虽已摄归自体,而自体中有心王心所之别,心及心所,俱能变现;以心王为胜,心所为劣,是以隐劣显胜而观唯识,王所相对,是为第四重唯识观。

遣相证性识–前第四重仅存心王,心王有事相,有理性;事相宜遣,理性应证,事理相对,是为第五重唯识观。

十三、五乘五性–五乘者:声闻、缘觉、菩萨、人、天等。五性(姓)者:菩萨定性、缘觉定性、声闻定性、三乘不定性、无性有情等。就出世法言:三乘五性,有情界中五乘种性,各有差异;凡可证三乘道的,其八识中,自无始以来,本有三乘的无漏种子,而无无漏种子者,是为无性。兹将五性分别条述于后:

菩萨定性–又名乘性,或名决定大乘种性,名异而实同。此类众生,本有照见二空,证得四智,可成佛果的无漏意种,没有缘觉乘种性,决定直入大乘。

缘觉定性–又名独觉乘性、或名决定独觉种性;此类众生,但有可证独觉果的人空无漏智一分种子,决定可证独觉;灰身灭智,不能证入大乘。

声闻定性–又名声闻乘性,或名决定听闻种性,此类众生,但有可证声闻果的人空无漏智一分种子,决定证入罗汉果;灰身灭智,不能证入大乘。

三乘不定性–又名不定乘性,或名不定种性,此类众生,兼具三乘种性的无漏种子、先证小果,后入大乘;除此尚有菩萨和缘觉二乘种性者,更有兼具菩萨声闻二乘种性者,也有兼具缘觉声闻二乘种性者;此三类众生,前二者不定性,后一者亦为定性二乘,基于定性,故仍不能证入大乘。

无性有情–又名无性,或名人天乘性,此类众生,全无三乘无漏种子,唯修世善,而得人天殊胜果报。

十四、三乘行果–本宗所立,大致与俱舍宗相同,其中的声闻与缘觉二乘,于前面俱舍宗章节中已具述,本节仅述大乘行果;所谓大乘行果;即是菩萨行果,共立四十一位,分三大阿僧祇,第一阿僧祇即十住、十行、十回向,是资粮与别行位。第二阿僧祇即初地至七地,是通达与修习位。第三阿僧祇即八地至十地,仍在修习位中;当十地成就而至妙觉,才是究竟位,也就是无学的佛行果了。

分别详述于后:

十住–一发心、二治地、三修行、四生贵、五方便、六正心、七不退、八童真、九法王子、十灌顶。此十位名为住者,是菩萨于此十住中安住其心;于六波罗密中行未达殊胜功德,但得住名,发菩提心以上求佛道,下化众生,是为十住的内容;但于此住中,应修十信,十信者:信心、精进心、念心、慧心、定心、施心、戒心、护心、愿心、回向心、集此十心,以信为主,所以名为十信。

十行–一欢喜、二饶益、三无恚、四无尽、五离痴、六善现、七无着、八尊重、九善法、十真实;此十行,为行六波罗密令其行殊胜,所以名行。

十回向–一救护众生离众生相、二不坏、三等诸佛、四至一切处、五无尽功德藏、六随顺一切坚固善根、七等心随顺一切众生、八如相、九无着无缚解脱心、十法界无量;由于菩萨凡所修行、通皆回向,回的意思是回转,向即是趣向、以此十位为回转趣向,是以叫做回向。谓回前十行向于三处,一者回事向理,以真如实际,是所证故。二者回因向果,以无上菩提,是所求故。三者回自向他,以一切众生、是所度故。

以上十住、十行、十回向积为三贤,为趣向无上菩提,修集种种殊胜资粮故,所以名资粮位。第十回向满心之位,修四善根,谓暖、顶、忍、世第一法,以将入见道,加用功行故,名加行位,自初住以至回向,满一大阿僧祇劫。

十地–一欢喜、二离垢、三发光、四焰慧、五难胜、六现前、七远行、八不动、九善慧、十法云;此十位通名为地者,以总摄能证之智的有为功德,和所证之理的无为功德以为自性;与所修行,为胜依持,令其生长,所以叫做地。十地各有入、住、出三心,入地未久是入心,久住时分是住心,久住以后,渐近后位是出心;三心各经俱胝百千大劫,初地入心,体会真如,以初照理故名见道;见道略说有二,一真见道,证唯识性,二相见道,证唯识相;真相见道,名通达位,自初地住心至十地出心,合为修道,以修习无分别智,断惑证理故名修习位。自初地至七地属第二阿僧祇劫,八地至十地属第三阿僧祇劫;十地满心,名等觉,与佛果位邻。

妙觉–即佛果位,以自觉觉他,觉行圆满,不可思议,所以叫做妙觉;由转烦恼,得大涅槃,转所知障,证无上觉,是为二转依果,属于究竟无漏界摄,名究竟位;所谓究竟,略述二义:一是对前十住、十行、十回向、十地之四位,是名究竟,二是对二乘极果,是名究竟;因为诸漏断尽,无法可学,是以名为无学道。

十五、三时教–立三时教的精神,为如来应机说法,机分三品,所以教立三时:初时名「有教」,二时名「空教」,三时名「中道教」。

有教–为众生迷执有我,起惑造业,沉沦生死;佛于初成道时,在鹿野苑,为发趣声闻乘,转四谛法,说四阿含。破实我之执。令小根人渐登圣位。凡诸部小乘,皆摄此时教。

空教–小根人闻四谛法。虽断我执。但于诸位,执为实有;佛为破彼法执,后于灵鹫山为发趣大乘,说诸法空相,如摩诃般若经等,令中根人舍小趣大,时诸佛子,闻世尊密义意趣,说无破有,便以二谛性相皆空,执为无上圣理。

中道教–基于二乘偏有偏空,不契中道,佛以此时解深密等会,演了义,说一切法,唯心有识,心外无法,破初有执,非无内识,破次空执,非有非空,离有无二边,处其中道。

十六、二智–根本智与后得智是为二智,所谓根本智又名正体智或无分别智;为直证二空所现真如之理,理智平等一体,正断惑障,是以为智;了知一切诸法皆即真如,境智无异,如人闭目,外无分别,由此无分别智,能生种种分别,故名分别智。后得智又名后得差别智,为证真如实性后所起;了知依他如幻,不生我法迷惑分别,种种境智有异,如人开目,诸色显现,基于根本智为得此智,故名后得智。

十七、四智–四智摄尽一切有为无漏功德:大圆镜智,其智体清净,离有漏杂染之法,自众生善恶之业报,显现万德庄严之境界。平等性智,凡夫第七识之我见,转而得此智者,以证自他平等之理,对初地以上之菩萨,现他受用之身土,常行大慈悲之化益。妙观察智,转凡夫之第六识而至佛果,观察诸法而说法之智者。成所作智,转有漏之第五识,利乐诸有情而至十方界,示现神通变化,成本有之愿力而行应做者。

十八、三身–有自性、受用、变化三者:自性身又为法身,为如来真净法界,受用变化平等所依,离相寂然,绝诸戏论,具无边际真净功德,是一切法平等实性。受用身又为报身,具二种性,一为自受用,为诸如来三无数(阿僧祇)劫修集量福慧资粮,所起无量真实功德,及极圆净常遍色身,相续湛然,尽未来际,恒常自受用广大法乐;二为他受用,为诸如来由平等智示现微妙净功德身,居纯净土,为住十地诸菩萨众现大神通,转正*轮,决众疑惘,令彼受用大乘法乐。变化身又为应身,为诸如来由成所作智变现无量随类化身,居净秽土未登地菩萨二乘异生,称彼机宜现通说法,令各获得诸利乐事。

第五节 三论学派

一、缘起–本宗依中论、十二门论、百论之论藏而立,加龙树所造之智度论(释大般若经)合称四论宗。中论的大意为申明大乘中实之理。十二门论立十二法门,尽破大乘之迷执,而申大乘之实理。百论乃龙树弟子提婆所造,为偈颂论句之数而立名,破障蔽大小乘之外道执,以申大小之两正。我国于姚秦时由鸠摩罗什译三论,唐嘉祥大师依三论疏,是三论宗之缘起。

二、破立–本宗讲究破他立正,总谈绝待为旨趣,或谓破邪显正,但佛法深广,应无邪说,可谓破他显正;于他四,分述于后:

破外道:凡佛教以外之道,不明我法二空之理,执着诸般邪见。
斥毗昙:毗昙又为俱舍宗,说我空法有,知人空不知法亦空。
排成实:成实宗主空,知人法俱空,却未除偏空情见,不解空亦不可得。
遣妄执:系指大乘行者之妄执,大乘之本旨在破除小乘人法之迷,远离空、有、断、常二边之见,而显中道之理;但学教行者,辄有所得之妄执,往往闻有执有,闻空执空,闻中道执中道,故遣责之。

其次是立正有三,亦分述之:

偏正:与偏执相对,称之为正者。
尽偏正:偏执尽除,称之为正者。
绝对正:偏执既去,正亦不留,非偏非正,无以名之,强名为正,是于绝对。

三、二谛–本宗二谛系依教而立,为使学教行者,对佛意不主迷见,确知佛于说破空见而举俗谛之有,说破有见而举真谛之空,故开四重二谛之法,以破迷执,兹分述于后:

一重二谛:世间万众差别宛然而有,然皆因缘所成,别无自性,当下如空,故俗谛为有,真谛为空;然此「空有」乃一物之两面,故俗谛为即空之有,真谛为即有之空;他宗有执着实有实空为二谛者,谓空之外实有「有」,有之外实有「空」,而本宗破之;说即有之空为真谛,欲显不空之空以破执空,是为一重二谛也!

二重二谛:他宗有执假空为二谛者,本宗谓假有假空分立尚是俗谛,因既为不有之有,同样是不空之空,有与空本来不二,故以一重之有空为俗谛,而以非有非空为真谛,是为二重二谛。

三重二谛:为空有是二,非空有为不二,分别以二与不二观之,仍是俗谛,非二非不二才是真谛,是为三重二谛。

四重二谛:为前三重二谛是言教,旨在破执着而立此三门,使行者令悟不三,须言忘虑绝,归无所得,始契合真谛之究竟,所以前三重是俗谛,非非不有与非非不空才是真谛,是为四重二谛。

四、八不中道–他宗立破迷之外别有中道,本宗不然,谓破尽迷情即是中道,故立八不中道说;八不者,即「不生不灭,不断不常,不一不异,不来不出。」八句四对,反之则为八迷,或为八计;所谓中道乃指所作之理而言,而正观中观乃指能证之智而言;又为偏对是中,邪对是正,故本宗立为至极之宗旨。

五、二藏三轮–佛陀所遗下的大小乘经籍,本宗以同明一道,无得正观为旨,是为针对无边众生的烦恼与苦厄,而应病施药而与药摄化众生,故立二藏三轮之说。所谓二藏者,即声闻藏与菩萨藏;或为小乘藏与大乘藏,前者是从人立名,后者是从法立名;小乘有声闻缘觉二者,仅以声闻立藏,是为缘觉不禀教故。大乘有佛菩萨二者,仅以菩萨立藏,是为佛不禀教故。所谓三轮者,即是三转*轮,一是根本*轮,谓佛初成道,于华严会上,纯为菩萨开一因一果之法,是为根本之教,又称一乘教。二是枝末*轮,以薄福钝根之流,不堪闻一因一果之法,故于一佛乘分别说三,是为枝末之教,又称三乘教。三是摄末归本*轮,佛以四十九年说三乘接引众生,至法华会上,始得会彼三乘归于一道,是为摄末归本之教,又称摄三乘归于一乘教。

六、三时–本宗之三时判教,是印度智光论师所立,依华严探玄记载:谓智光论师依般若经等,中观论等立三时教;谓佛初于鹿野苑为诸小根说小乘法,以明「心境俱有」。第二时为中根说法相大乘,以明「境空心有」的唯识道理。第三时为上根说无相大乘,辨「心境俱空」,平等一味,为真了义。三时所显之理,初时为破外道自性,故说缘生之法,定是实有。二时为渐破二乘缘生实有之执,说此缘生,以为实有,以彼怖畏,此真空故,犹存假有,而接引之。三时方就究竟大乘,说此缘生,即是性空,平等一味,不碍二谛。

七、果位–本宗标成佛之义,立真俗二门:一为真谛门中生佛不二,染净一如,一切众生,元本是佛;六道含灵,元自寂灭,无迷无悟,无所谓成与不成。二为俗谛门中诸法缘起,迷悟染净,因果历然;由此义故,根有利钝,成佛必有迟速;利根者,一念成就八不正观,即得道果。钝根者,经三大阿僧祇劫,修六度万行,方得成佛。然而,一念不碍三祇,三祇不妨一念,一念即三祇;念劫融通,犹若一夕之眠,梦百年事,如同一夕,若论三祇修行,须经五十一位,然后成就道果,所以本宗谓自菩萨至佛果,共立五十二位;即十信、十住、十行、十回向、等觉、妙觉是也!

第六节 法华学派

一、缘起–北齐之时,有慧文大师,依智论立一心三观,而授南岳之慧思,思传智顗(智者),智于天台山依法华经弘扬教观,遂成天台宗(以山立名);智者著述颇丰,大多为门人灌顶(章安)笔录;如法华玄义,法华文句,摩诃止观,是为天台三大部。又观音玄义,观音义疏,金光明玄义,金光明文句,观经疏是为五小部。而后,灌顶传智威,智威传惠威,惠威传玄朗,玄朗传湛然;湛然着法华玄义释签,法华文句记,摩诃止观,辅行传弘决等,广弘本宗要旨;湛然有称荆溪尊者,或谓妙乐大师,而后代有传人,法将辈出,至今不衰。

二、五时–智者大师将世尊教法分为五时,五时有通有别;所谓「通五时」者,即应机说法,不拘时期次第,但随所应闻,即便得闻;又「别五时」者,须经五时陶冶,次第分别,如初时华严:佛成道之初,为大菩萨众及大乘根器者说华严经,唯化大乘者,在座小乘人却不见不闻,犹如聋瞽。二时阿含:(又为鹿苑时–因最初说法于鹿野苑)佛为小乘钝根,说四谛,演四阿含而诱导之。三时方等:众机普被叫方,四教并谈叫等;因二乘人闻小乘法,往往得少为足,以为究竟,所以说维摩诸经以弹诃,促使耻小向大。四时般若:小乘既被弹诃,但其执着之情犹未顿灭,所以广宣般若空慧之法,以与沙汰。五时法华涅槃:钝根既经前四时之陶冶,机渐纯熟,所以说法华经称性而谈,令会权责,了妄即真,使三根咸得成佛;然恐余习难尽,所以又说涅槃经。

三、八教–顿,渐,秘密,不定是为化仪(教仪)四教;藏,通,别,圆是为化法(教法)四教,合而为八,是谓八教。化仪中:有顿、渐、不定、秘密四教;一为顿教:顿具二义:一是佛初成道时,为大根人所顿说,如华严经等。二是初发心时便成正觉,及性修不二,生佛同等,如方等般若诸经。二为渐教:渐有二义:阿含是渐初,方等为渐中,般若是渐后;于小根者,则渐次诱导,引入大乘,是为一义。次是历劫修行,断惑识位,次第成就。三为秘密教:密有二义,一是密教,乃于华严、阿含、方等、般若四时中,有时说顿,有时说渐,互不相知,各自获益。二是密咒,凡一切陀罗尼章句,于五时教均有。四为不定教:不定有二义,一是不定教,于前四时中,有时说顿,有时说渐,彼此互知,分别获益。二是不定益,于前四时中,有时闻顿教得渐益,有时闻渐教得顿益。化法中:有藏、通、别、圆四教;一为藏教:指小乘三藏教,即阿含时所说之法,钝根者由此识小乘果。二为通教;是佛大小乘根者共通之说法,钝根者闻之可通达藏教,利根者可通达别、圆二教。三为别教:是专将菩萨之法,不同于藏、通、圆教。四为圆教:针对最上之利根菩萨所说的圆妙之法,具圆满、圆足、圆顿之教法;于此四教中,藏、通、别三教是权,圆教是实。

五时八教可以说是智者大师承古的新说,其真实的关系与目的,除以上所述者:华严时正说圆教,兼说别教。阿含时但说三藏教。方等时对三藏法的生灭门,而说通、别、圆教的不生不灭门。般若时正说圆教实理,带说通、别二者的权理。法华涅槃时,法华开三藏通、别的权,显圆教的实;如果依化仪四教而言,应该是会渐归顿,或者是说非顿非渐;而涅槃偏重未入实理者广说常住,复为末法钝根而扶三权,故重说四教,追泯四教;如果依化仪四教而言,应该是非顿非渐。不过,于秘密与不定二化仪,应该是偏于前四时的,只有法华是显教,不是秘密,是决定,不是不定。

四、性具法门–天台的性具,谓自性本具善恶,才造作六凡四圣的因果关系;其他宗派但说性善,而天台并说性恶,正是通于「一即一切」的大乘法门,其依据是为大般涅槃经中所说:「一阐提人皆有佛性」的道理;是以,天台的性具,说:「善有性善而修善,恶有性恶而修恶」,当众生成佛,但断修恶,不断性恶。

五、一念三千–摩诃止观说:「夫一心具十法界,一法界又具十法界,百法界;一界具三十种世间,百法界即具三千种世间;此三千在一念心,若无心而已,介尔有心,即具三千。」这便是天台宗以三千世间于一念中本来具足的思想;与地论的法性心,摄论的梨耶识。可以说是同为「唯心」思想,各有千秋的理论。

六、一心三观–或谓三谛三观。天台立「空、假、中」三观,是依中论所说:「因缘所生法,我说即是空,亦名为假名,亦名中道义。」的理论,以及法华文句中的「空观闻于真谛,假观闻于俗谛,中观普闻中道第一义谛。」的思想;智者大师于维摩经文疏(口述)中为「三谛三观」分别解释「别相、通相、一心」三种意义。别相三观:从假入空,从空入假,从空假入中道。通相三观:一空一切空,假中皆空;一假一切假,空中皆假;一中一切中,空假皆中。一心三观:一念心中,三观具足。

七、三谛圆融–谛即是审实不虚,也就是一般所说的真理;天台立三谛圆融,乃以观「一切法即空、即假、即中。」所谓即空即是真谛,因诸法本空,众生不了,执实为妄;若以空观,则忘情离相,是为泯一切法而显真谛之空理。所谓即假即是俗谛,因诸法虽空,皆不可得;若以假观,则了性具诸法,历历宛然,是为立一切法而显俗谛之假理。所谓即中即是中谛,因诸法本来不离二边;若以中观,则了非真非俗,即真即俗,圆融无碍,不可思议,是以统一切法而显中谛之中道义。

八、三智圆明–摩诃止观中说:「佛智照空,如二乘所见,名一切智。佛智照假,如菩萨所见,名道种智。佛智照空假中,皆见实相,名一切种智;故言三智一心中得。」天台立三智之说,有次第与不次第之别;所谓次第者,空观若成,即知一切法之名相,无我无所,能知能解,是为一切智;不过,此空观之智,只能总达诸法无生,不能别知诸法缘起,故有待假观;是以假观所成之智为道种智。若中观中道,依一种智知一切诸佛之道法,一切众生之因种,则成一切种智。所谓不次第者,即一心三观所成之三智;摩诃止观说:「一心三观所成三智,知不思议三境,此智由观得,故受智名法。」可见不次第三智,惟佛一智;于一心圆观,成就三智,故说圆明正智。

九、六即佛–天台立六即佛之思想,是依华严经与菩萨璎珞本业经为典藉;智者大师为使修证与理体圆融,了知果位之成就,设「六即」而显凡圣之本末,深解「不二」之旨趣。所谓六即佛者:理即佛:一切众生,悉具佛性,与诸如来,无二无别,本具理性,当体即佛。名字即佛:从知识处闻,从经卷中闻,知理性即佛之名;于名字中通达了解,一切诸法,皆是佛法,是为名字即佛。观行即佛:已知一切诸法皆是佛法,必须证悟心观,理慧相应,所行如所言,是为观行即佛。相似即佛:于观行中明静止观,得六根清净;断见思,除尘沙等惑,于止寂中虽未证其理,但相似真证,是为相似即佛。分证即佛:断一分无明,证一分法身,能显自性,即现真如,是为分证即佛。究竟即佛:永泯无明烦恼,道穷妙觉,种智具圆;显清净法身,常住寂光净土是为究竟即佛。此六即佛,依初位而圣位,随所断无明,分四十二品;亦依别教的妙觉,十行中的第二行,以圆教妙觉之极果,而远置四十二位;乃是智者大师所倡导的论法,为圆融修证与理体的不二之义。

第七节 华严学派

一、缘起–本宗依华严经而立,创宗者为唐之帝心杜顺和尚,着法界观言简意达,是为本宗之初祖;云华智严法师作搜玄记而释华严,并作十玄门,五十问答以申其义,是为二代祖;贤首法藏大师作探玄记及章疏多种,广弘法界妙义,是为三代祖;清凉澄观法师作华严疏钞,及新译华严经,皆依法藏大师之作以为典范,是为四代祖;而后圭峰宗密禅师是五代祖。

二、五教–即本宗立五教以摄佛教诸法,其教判之举,始于杜顺,成于贤首,兹分别详述之:

小乘教:但明我空,说灰身灭智之涅槃法;如四部阿含经、发智、俱舍,婆娑论等。

大乘始教:也就是大乘初门之教,计分相始教与空始教二种:所谓相始教,即分别五性,依他之万法唯识而融合心境,如解深密经,唯识、瑜伽等论;所谓空始教,即说诸法皆空,显无所得平等而破法执,如般若经、三论等。

大乘终教:也就是大乘终极之教,说真如缘起,事理互融,认一切众生悉当成佛;如楞伽、胜鬘等经,以及宝性、起信等论。

顿教:也就是顿彻理性之教,不依言句,不设阶位,一念不生,即见佛性;如楞伽经之「镜像顿现」,宝积经之「顿教修多罗」,维摩诘经之「默而显不二」,达摩之「以心印心」等而立旨趣。

圆教:也就是融和圆满之教,明事事无碍,一即一切,一切即一;如华严经开启圆融不思议之法门,远异于三乘共法,以及法华经开会二乘,说相同于三乘共法。

三、四法界–法界,乃一切众生身心之本体,法就是轨则;界有二义,约事分界为分义,谓随事分别故;约理说界为性义,谓诸法不能变易故。法界有四种,分别条述于后:

事法界:谓诸众生之色心等法,一一事相,各有差别;其界限十分分明,如水与冰,不相混乱。

理法界:谓诸众生之色心等法,虽有差别,却同一体性,依其平等之理性,为一切事相之所依;如水与冰,相状虽异,体性不别。

理事无碍法界:谓理事显,事揽理成,理事互融;如水与波,波本是水。

事事无碍法界:谓一切分别事法,皆为称性融通,平等之理性所显,大小相互相容,重重无尽;也就是理事既无碍,事事亦无碍;如水与波,此水此波,彼水彼波,以及一水一波,多水多波,相互融通。

四、四种缘起–本宗之教理,以缘起为主,所谓法界一乘,具起至极,万有之缘于万有而起;也就是一切有为之法,皆因缘而起,本宗立四种缘起,分述如后:

业感缘起:谓惑、业、苦三道轮转,而至因果相续;惑为心之病,业为身之恶,苦为生死之果报;也就是说:心之病为缘,因而造身之恶,身之恶为因,由是感生死之果;例如心起瞋恚是惑,因而与人结怨(杀他)成业,由是此业而感未来之苦(报)果;依此可见众生之身心世界,皆由业力而生起。

赖耶缘起:即阿赖耶,译义为藏,能含藏万法无量之种子,乃有情之根本依识,而生有为之万法;也就是说众生之身心世界,皆由此无量种子遇缘而生诸法。

真如缘起:即如来藏缘起,谓平等真如为无始以来、不增不减之实体,由于染净之缘所驱使而生种种之法;也就是说随染缘而成六凡(地狱、饿鬼、畜生、修罗、人间、天上),随净缘而成四圣(声闻、缘觉、菩萨、佛),所以,十法界皆由真如随缘而生起。

法界缘起:谓法界为一大缘起,无论是有为法、无为法、色心依正、过去未来,皆无单立者;以一法成一切法,以一切法起一法、也就是说万有缘于万有而起!不是众生之业力,不是差别生灭之心识,不是平等不生灭理性之真如;是为万法彼此融通,互为缘起,重重无尽,所以,法界缘起又叫做无尽缘起。

五、六相圆融–出典于华严经,十地论中阐述之,贤首曾述其义,兹依华严一乘教义分齐章(或谓五教章),仅述其概略于后:

总相:一含多德,如人身具眼耳等根识而成一体;如房舍总合梁柱瓦石诸缘而成。

别相:多德各个而非,如身体虽为一,但眼耳等诸根识各个不同,因身与根识相对之平等差别;如房舍中之梁柱瓦石诸缘,与总相实各有别,此诸别相,依止于总相而成就总相;换言之,也就是若不别则总义不成,因总由别成,无别便无总。

同相:多德不乖角,具各个成一总之义,如眼耳等诸根识,具各个成一身之义,并非是身外之物;如梁柱瓦石诸缘,和合而成房舍,不相违背,因此均为总体之缘,非是余物。

异相:多义相望,各异形类,如眼耳等相貌各异,而诸根相望;如梁柱瓦石诸缘,彼此相望,形类各异。

成相:多义正缘起而成一总,如眼耳等诸根缘起而成一身;如梁柱瓦石诸缘,部份相依而成全体,各具特性,而和同成事;于是房舍乃成。

坏相:多义各住自法而不移动,如眼耳等住自位而各自为用;如梁柱瓦石诸缘,梁柱自梁柱,瓦石自瓦石,各住自法,原本不是房舍。

附:六相三对:六相如以金狮子喻,则狮为总相。狮之五根差别为别相。五根共从一缘起是同相。五根(眼耳等)互不混乱是异相。诸根聚合而成狮子是成相。诸根各住自位是坏相。于是六相,实为一物六别,六成一物;依总别乃能成与所成相对,所成是总相,能成是别相。依同异乃谓能成之法诸缘和合,和同成物是同相,形类各别为异相。依成坏乃就缘起而言,缘起之用成就是成相,自性不动是坏相;归纳总别是体,同异是相,成坏是用,合为三对,是名六相三对。

六、十玄门–乃十玄缘起无碍法门之简称,兹依华严疏钞及探玄记略述要旨:

同时具足相应门:十方三世之一切诸法,由于缘起所使,举一法即具一切法,圆满具足,相互照应而显;缘起乃诸法之自性,故一切诸法于同一时,同一处,为一大缘起存在。华严经妙严品云:「一切法门无尽海,同会一法道场中」,说明事事无碍,法界之总相。

广狭自在无碍门:一法之力用无际限名广,守一法之分限不坏本位名狭;然而,大非定大,置毛端而不窄,小非定小,含太虚而有余,华严经云:「以小世界作大世界,大世界作小世界。」所谓事圆理融,自在无碍者是。

一多相容不同门:乃谓一佛土与十方一切佛土互相容纳,却不失一多之本位,华严经云:「以一佛土满十方,十方入一亦无余。」所谓一月千光,潭潭印月,便是这个道理。

诸法相即自在门:乃谓一切诸法,互融互即,不相妨碍;也就是说:一法即为一切法中之一法,彼既为一切法中之物,故废己而同他,一法之体,全为彼之一切法;即一切法之外,更无一法为虚体,所同之一切法为有体;华严经云:「一即是多,多即是一」,譬如水之与波,不相舍离。

隐密显了俱成门:乃谓一切诸法,互摄无碍;也就是说:一切法显而一法隐,一法显而一切法隐,显隐互易。华严经云:「或东方见入正受,或西方见三昧起,于眼根中入正受,于色法中三昧起。」此说显隐,体无前后,故不妨碍。

微细相容安立门:乃谓一能含多,一多不杂,任何微细中亦含容一切诸法;华严经云:「一毛孔中,无量佛剎,庄严清净,旷然安立。」有若玻璃瓶中,盛满芥子,或如明镜中显映万像。

The Buddha’s teaching rests on two truths:
Conventional truth and ultimate truth.
Those who do not understand the distinction between them
Do not understand Buddha’s profound truth.
Ultimate truth cannot be taught without basis on relative truth;
Without realisation of the meaning of ultimate truth
Enlightenment cannot be attained.

— Nāgārjuna

Heart Jewel of the Fortunate: An Introduction to Dzogchen, the Great Perfection
by His Holiness Dudjom Rinpoche

Homage to my teacher!
The Great Master of Oddiyana once said:
Don’t investigate the roots of things,
Investigate the root of Mind!
Once the Mind’s root has been found,
You’ll know one thing yet all is thereby freed.
But if the root of Mind you fail to find,
You will know everything but nothing understand.

When you start to meditate on your mind, sit up with your body straight, allowing your breath to come and go naturally, and with eyes neither closed nor wide open, gaze into the space in front of you. Think to yourself that for the sake of all beings who have been your mothers, you will watch Awareness, the face of Samantabhadra. Pray strongly to your root teacher inseparable from Padmasambhava, the Guru from Oddiyana, and then mingle your mind with his and settle in a balanced meditative state.

Once you are settled, however, you will not stay long in this empty, clear state of awareness. Your mind will start to move and become agitated. It will fidget and run here, there and everywhere, like a monkey. What you are experiencing at this point is not the nature of the mind, but only thoughts. If you stick with them and follow them, you will find yourself recalling all sorts of things, thinking about all sorts of needs, and planning all sorts of activities. It is precisely this kind of mental activity that in the past has hurled you into the dark ocean of samsara. And there’s no doubt that it will do the same in the future. It would be so much better if you could cut through the ever-spreading, black delusion of your thoughts!

Now, supposing you are able to break out of your chains of thoughts, what is awareness like? It is empty, limpid, stunning, light, free, and joyful! It is not something bounded or demarcated by its own set of attributes. There is nothing in the whole of samsara and nirvana that it does not embrace. From time without beginning, it is inborn within us; we have never been without it, and yet it is wholly outside the range of action, effort and imagination.

But what, you will ask, is it like to recognise awareness, the face of rigpa [wisdom]? Well, although you experience it, you simply can’t describe it — it would be like a dumb man trying to describe his dreams! It is impossible to distinguish between yourself resting in awareness and the awareness that you are experiencing. When you rest quite naturally, nakedly, in the boundless state of awareness, all those speedy, pestering thoughts, that would not stay quiet even for an instant — all those memories, all those plans that cause you so much trouble — lose their power. They disappear in the spacious, cloudless sky of awareness. They shatter, collapse, and vanish. All their strength is lost in awareness.

You actually have this awareness within you. It is the clear, naked wisdom of dharmakaya. But who can introduce you to it? On what should you take your stand? What should you be certain of? To begin with, it is your teacher who shows you the state of your awareness. And when you recognise it for yourself, it is then that you are introduced to your own nature. Then, with the understanding that all the appearances of both samsara and nirvana are but the display of your own awareness, take your stand upon awareness alone. Just like the waves that rise up out of the sea and sink back into it, all thoughts that appear sink back into awareness. Be certain of their dissolution, and as a result, you will find yourself in a state utterly devoid of both meditator and something meditated — completely beyond the meditating mind.

“Oh, in that case,” you might think, “there’s no need for meditation.” Well, I can assure you that there certainly is a need! The mere recognition of awareness will not liberate you. Throughout your lives from beginningless time, you have been enveloped in false beliefs and deluded habits. From then until now you have spent every moment of your lives as the miserable, pathetic slave of your thoughts! And when you die, it’s not at all certain where you will go. You will follow your karma, and you will have to suffer. That’s the reason why you must meditate, continuously preserving the state of awareness that you have been introduced to. The omniscient Longchenpa has said: “You may recognise your own nature, but if you do not meditate and get used to it, you will be like a baby left on a battlefield: you’ll be carried off by the enemy, your own thoughts!” In general terms, meditation means becoming familiar with the state of resting in the primordial, uncontrived nature, through being spontaneously, naturally, and constantly mindful. It means getting used to leaving the state of awareness alone, divested of all distractions and clinging.

Now, how are we to get used to remaining in the nature of the mind? When thoughts come while you are meditating, let them come; there’s no need to regard them as your enemies. When they arise, relax in their arising. On the other hand, if they don’t arise, don’t be nervously wondering whether they will. Just rest in their absence. If during your meditation, big, well-defined thoughts suddenly appear, it is easy to recognise them. But when slight, subtle movements occur, it is hard to realise that they are there until much later. This is what we call namtok wogyu, the undercurrent of mental wandering. This is the thief of your meditation, so it is important for you to keep a close watch. If you can be constantly mindful, both in meditation and afterwards, when you are eating, sleeping, walking or sitting, then that’s it; you’ve got it right!

The Great Master Guru Rinpoche has said:

A hundred things may be explained, a thousand told,
But one thing only should you grasp.
Know one thing and everything is freed—
Remain within your inner nature. Be aware!

It is also said that if you do not meditate, you will not gain certainty; if you do, you will. But what sort of certainty? If you meditate with a strong, joyful endeavour, signs will appear that show that you have got used to staying in your nature. That fierce, tight clinging that you have to phenomena, experienced dualistically, will gradually loosen up, and your obsession with happiness and suffering, hopes and fears, etc., will slowly weaken. Your devotion to the teacher and your sincere trust in his instructions will grow. After a time, your tense, dualistic attitudes will evaporate and you will get to the point where gold and pebbles, food and filth, gods and demons, virtue and non-virtue are all the same for you — you’ll be at a loss to choose between paradise and hell! But in the meantime, until you reach that point (while you are still caught in the experiences of dualistic perception), virtue and non-virtue, buddha fields and hells, happiness and pain, actions and their results — all this is a reality for you. As the Great Guru has said, “My view is higher than the sky, but my attention to actions and their results is finer than flour.”

So it won’t do to go around saying you’re a Dzogchen meditator when all you are is a belching, farting lout!

It is essential for you to have a stable foundation of pure devotion and samaya, together with a strong, joyful endeavour that is well-balanced, neither too tense nor too loose. If you are able to meditate, completely turning aside from the activities and concerns of this life, it is certain that you will gain the extraordinary qualities of the profound path of Dzogchen. Why wait for future lives? You can capture the primordial citadel right now, in the present.

This advice is the very blood of my heart. Hold it close and never let it go!

When you say something really unkind, when you do something in retaliation, your anger increases. You make the other person suffer, and he will try hard to say or to do something back to get relief from his suffering. That is how conflict escalates.

— Thich Nhat Hanh